14th India-Japan Annual Summit emphasised on the common goal of India and Japan’s ‘Special Strategic and Global Partnership’ and provided and opportunity to both the countries to review and strengthen the bilateral relations in various areas and also provided a space for exchanging views on regional as well as global issues of mutual interest.
The 2nd QUAD foreign ministers’ meet was held in Tokyo. The discussion was mainly around post Covid-19 international order and the related challenges emerging from the pandemic. It also included regional issues and highlighted the importance of free and open Indo-Pacific.
The Government of Japan and Republic of India exchanged Diplomatic notes which established a framework which will facilitate smooth and prompt provision of supplies and services between the Self Defence Forces of Japan and the Indian Armed Forces. This Agreement will also ensure closer cooperation between the Indian Army and the Self Defence Forces which will serve the security of both countries and also enabling India and Japan actively contributing towards international peace and security.
The 23rd Edition of Trilateral Maritime Exercise MALABAR took place off the coast of Japan. MALABAR 2019 aims at further strengthening of India-Japan-US Naval cooperation and enhanced interoperability which is based on shared values and principles.
Japanese Air Self Defence and Indian Air Force held a bilateral air exercise SHINYUU- Maitri-18 at Air Force Station Agra. The theme of the exercise was joint Mobility/Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief on Transport aircraft.
India, the only non signatory of NPT receives an exemption from Japan. This was ensured when India-Japan signed an agreement on Civil Nuclear Cooperation. This agreement further strengthened the ties between India and Japan.
Japan finally confirmed its position in 2015 to permanently join India and US in The Malabar Naval Exercises. This altered the hitherto Indian-U.S. bilateral military exercise into trilateral India-U.S.- Japan event by giving Japan the position as a permanent member.
The Reserve Bank of India and The Bank of Japan signed a Bilateral Swap Agreement to swap their local currencies for an amount of $ 15 billion for a three year period.
A Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement was signed between India and Japan on 16th February, 2011 which came into force from 1st August of the same year. The agreement focused on bringing a momentum to business activities, eliminate tariffs on 90 percent of Japanese export to India on commodities such as auto parts and electric appliances and 97 percent of imports from India which includes agricultural and fisheries products until 2021.
In 2007, two Malabar naval exercises were held. The Initial part of the exercise was held in the Pacific Ocean for the first time away from the Bay of Bengal in the the Japanese Island of Okinawa which saw the participation of USA, Japan, Australia, India and Singapore.
This historic visit by PM Shinzo Abe in 2007 further strengthen India-Japan relations. In his speech he mentioned about the connection between the the Indian and The pacific Ocean by quoting the book of Mughal Prince Darah Shikoh, “Confluence of the Two Seas” and highlighted the strategic importance of the two oceans. Going back further in time, he mentioned about the historic connections that the both countries share. His visit laid the official foundation of QUAD.
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited Japan where extensive talks were held between the two countries. Both the Prime Ministers unveiled the Logo and launched the India-Japan Friendship Year 2007 and attended the inaugural event of the Festival of India in Japan. Various topics were discussed in this visit which includes:
– Strategic and Global Partnership
– Political, Defence And Security Cooperation
– Decided to launch negotiations for ‘Economic Partnership Agreement/ Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA /CEPA)’
Japan launched the feasibility study on the development of multimodal, high-axle load dedicated freight corridors for the Delhi-Mumbai and Delhi-Howrah rail routes with computerised control. This study was implemented as the consequence of the issuance of India-Japan Joint Statement.
The visit of H.E. Mr Junichiro Koizumi marked a remarkable moment for India as it took India Japan relations towards a positive direction.
This visit marked a common consensus between the two countries to add a strategic orientation to India-Japan Global Partnership. Both The leaders signed a Joint Statement entitled “Japan India Partnership in the New Asian Era: Strategic Orientation of Japan-India Global Partnership” and issued an action plan under the title “ Eight-fold Initiative for Strengthening Japan-India Global Partnership”
The three year old restrictions were finally uplifted by Japan as the Cabinet approved it, which prohibited new grants and official development assistance.
The visit provided a catalyst to the relation between the two countries after it hit rock bottom in 1998. Both the Prime Ministers Mr. Mori and Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee established “Global Partnership between Japan and India” which provided an opportunity to re-strengthen the relations again.
MOFA Japan in its press release expressed their distress due to India’s nuclear test in Pokhran. Viewed India’s nuclear testing as “a very serious challenge to international community”. Even the G-8 members in its official statement (which includes Japan) condemned India’s nuclear testing.
India and Japan have a historic relations which dates back to 6th century A.D. when Buddhism was first introduced to Japan. Today, Japan has more than 70 per cent population professing Buddhism and hence it has been reflected in their efforts to preserve Buddhist heritage sites not only within Japan but also in other parts of the world especially in India through UNESCO Japan Trust Fund for the preservation of Buddhist monuments of Sanchi and Satdhara.
After almost a gap of 30 years, it was one of the most important high level visit from India. Indian Prime Minister attended the opening ceremony of the Festival of India.
For the first time ever, Japan started its ODA by extending India yen loans and hence ODA was later mainly rendered to India in yen the form of yen loans.
Focus Area includes:
-Development of economic infrastructure, mainly in the area of power and transportation. -Poverty reduction through agricultural, rural development, and so on.
-Environmental protection, through afforestation and improvement of quality of water -Assisting to improve health and medical care
An agreement was signed between India and Japan which recognised the common desires and cultural relations between the two countries.
The treaty would ensure better understanding of the culture of the respective countries. It also mentions about establishment of cultural institutes of educational nature for the promotion of art through art centres, art societies and film libraries.
First Japanese Prime Minister to visit India officially since its Independence and in the same year visit of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to Japan where the Indian Prime Minister gifted two elephants to Ueno Zoo in Tokyo to the children of Japan.
One of the first diplomatic engagement since post independence of India, The Treaty of peace was signed between India and Japan for the establishment of friendly and peaceful relations between the two countries. The Treaty ensured promotion of cordial relation for the promotion of common welfare of People and adherence to the principles of the Charter of the United Nations for maintaining international peace and security.
On 11 October 1949, former Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru arrived in Washington where he was warmly welcomed by former US President Harry S Truman. Nehru spent three weeks travelling across the US, meeting members of the House and Senate and addressing several meetings in which he laid out India’s foreign policy interests.
Official Development Assistance (ODA) was “Non-commercial aid” which was given to developing countries that ensured yen credits and technical assistance as well as reparations to South Asia. The yen-credits for investment in specific project are called “project aid”.
Through this method of project aids, Japan utilised an effective way for acquiring resources and export Japanese product. One such project was with an Indian iron ore development project in 1951 which assured iron ore supply for the period of repayment and helped Japan with post World War II recovery.
India and Australia struck a deal on Economic Cooperation and Trade Agreement (INDAUS ECTA) after two decades of efforts also known as ECTA, a watershed moment for bilateral relations. The ratification ensured commitment to work together by building upon historical ties and friendship between the two countries. More importantly, it further tried to strengthen the economic relations by further liberalising and expanding trade and investment by enhancing economic growth and also providing more opportunities for workers.
For the third time, all the QUAD countries participated in the maritime exercise MALABAR. This time the agenda of the event included submarine integration, anti- submarine warfare train, air defense exercises, joint war fighting planning scenarios, and related maritime interdictions operations.
Australia and India elevated their relations to Comprehensive Strategic Partnership on the basis of mutual trust, understanding and common interest. With this India and Australia cemented their relations by ensuring their full cooperation in the Indo-Pacific region. Both the countries also signed various agreements on cyber security and trade.
Australia also participated in the annual naval exercise MALABAR by accepting the invitation of India hence joining the three countries- USA, Japan and India. The main goal of the Exercise is to enhance safety and security by ensuring a free, open and inclusive Indo-Pacific.
Senior Officials of the QUAD countries met at Bangkok to discuss their collective measures to establish a rule based order in the Indo-Pacific region by making it more advanced, free and open. They expressed their concerns about various issues and discussed solutions to tackle terrorism, cybercrime and threats related to maritime security. Moreover, the QUAD emphasised their commitment to regular consultations and Ministerial level meets in the coming future.
With respect to the 2014 Civil Nuclear Deal, the Australian Parliament passed the “Civil Nuclear Transfer Bill 2016” which gives permission to Uranium mining companies in Australia to fulfill Indian Contracts for civil use. It also establishes any bilateral trade in future in terms of trade in other nuclear related materials for civil use.
For the very first time a biennial Maritime exercise was held between India and Australia which was conducted off the east coast of India at Visakhapatnam. The Maritime exercise was conducted with the aim to strengthen defense cooperation between the two countries and also enhance the coordination between the nations to undertake combined or joint operations based on disaster relief and humanitarian assistance.
A high level India-Australia-Japan dialogue took place in New Delhi for the first time where the three countries discussed the emerging instability in the South China Sea and trilateral maritime cooperation in the Pacific as well as the Indian Ocean.
Both the nations signed a Civil Nuclear Deal which reversed Australia’s policy on nuclear sales to India. A very strategically important agreement will assist India in the production of radioisotopes, nuclear safety and other areas of cooperation.
With the aspiration to further strengthen the relation between India and Australia, the then Defence Minister A K Anthony made history by being the First Defence Minister to pay an official visit to Perth where both the countries discussed about the significant and strategic changes occurring in the fields of economy, military and strategically precisely in the Indo-Pacific region.
Prime Minister Julia Gillard finally ended one of the major obstacles of India-Australia relations by removing the longstanding ban on uranium sale to India since the 1998 nuclear test conducted by India.
Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and Prime Minister Kevin Rudd in November finally agreed to transform India Australia relation to a Strategic partnership
At the University of Western Australia, the Australian Foreign Minister gave a historic speech where he stated, “ It is under-appreciated that Perth and Chennai are closer to each other Than Sydney is to Tokyo, to Shanghai or Tokyo.”… As the world see the potential of an Asian/ Pacific century unfold, Australia sees India at the heart of this historic shift in political and economic influence.”
The multilateral exercise included naval forces from India, Australia, Japan, Singapore and the United States. The objective – interoperability among maritime forces for a more effective capability to respond, as necessary, to maritime threats such as terrorism proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and also transnational challenges like natural disasters and pandemic
During this visit a number of Memorandum of Understandings were signed by the two countries which included:
The shared perception between India and Australia on issues like regional and Global security were the foundational basis on which the dialogue was conducted in New Delhi. The major topics of discussions were related to Asia-Pacific and Indian Ocean regions, defense policies and arms control and disarmament, maritime security, export control, nuclear and missile non proliferation and small arms.
The first visit by an Australian Prime Minister since New Delhi’s and Canberra’s relations hit rock bottom in 1998. The visit was mainly aimed at repairing the relations by setting aside differences by moving the relationship forward.
The Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs conveyed the Australian Government’s ‘condemnation of the tests in the strongest possible terms’ to the Indian High Commissioner and recalled the Australian High Commissioner from New Delhi for consultations.
The second series of tests by India consequently made Canberra to decide:
Official establishment of Joint Ministerial Commission (JMC) between India and Australia which is co-chaired by Indian Minister of Commerce and Industry and Australian Minister of Trade. Aim is to strengthen relations between the two countries particularly in the fields of commercial, economic, scientific and technological cooperation.
Various Memorandum of Understandings were signed between the two governments in the field of meteorology, space, S&T Research, Scientific and educational training
India and Australia established diplomatic relations in the pre-independence period when the Consulate General of India was first opened as a Trade Office in Sydney in 1941. In 1945, India’s first High Commissioner to Australia arrived in Canberra in 1945.
SEPTEMBER 24, 2021- President Biden hosted Prime Minister Narendra Modi today, forging closer ties between two leading Indo-Pacific powers, the United States and India. Dealing with Generating Jobs and Mutual Prosperity, Advancing Security in the Indo-Pacific and Beyond, Exploring Space, Reinvigorating Science, Education, Innovation, and People-to-People Ties.
10 MAR 2023 -India – USA 5th Commercial Dialogue 2023 held. Commercial Dialogue re-launched with renewed and strategic focus covering new and emerging areas. Focus on Building Resilient and Secure Supply Chains and Diversification. Collaboration in Talent Development including Skilling, Post-Pandemic Economic Recovery, especially for SMEs and Startups.
08 JAN 2023-Shri Piyush Goyal to visit New York and Washington DC from 9-11 January 2023 to participate in 13th India-US Trade Policy Forum. Shri Goyal will also meet USTR Ambassador Katherine Tai and have bilateral meeting with US Secretary of Commerce Gina Raimondo. Shri Goyal will interact with CEOs, business leaders, think tanks and visit industries in New York. Visit to further trade and investment relations between both the nations.
Fourth 2+2 Dialogue
JULY 18, 2022 – The United States hosted the fourth 2+2 Dialogue in April 2022.In addition to the 2+2 Dialogue, the United States and India cooperated in dozens of bilateral dialogues and working groups, which span all aspects of human endeavour, from space and health cooperation to energy and high technology trade. These include the U.S.-India Counterterrorism Joint Working Group, which was established in 2000, as well as the Strategic Clean Energy Partnership, Climate Action and Finance Mobilization Dialogue, Cyber Dialogue, Civil Space Working Group, the Education and Skills Development Working Group, Trade Policy Forum, Defense Policy Group, and Counternarcotics Working Group.
On October 28-29, 2021, the United States and India will co-host the fourth annual Indo-Pacific Business Forum (IPBF), which will bring together leaders in government, industry, media, and non-profits from across the Indo-Pacific.
DECEMBER 18, 2020- Senior officials from the United States, Australia, India, and Japan met virtually today as part of regular Quad consultations to advance a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region.
October 2020- Both the nation’s sign an intelligence sharing agreement, The Basic Exchange and Cooperation Agreement (BECA) as part of the third round of the two plus two dialogue, that will allow sharing of high-end military technology between the two countries.
February 2020- President Trump’s contribution in raising our relations to this level have been invaluable. Increasing defence and security cooperation, Cooperation in ultra-modern defence equipment and platforms will enhance India’s defence capabilities, cooperation in the area of homeland security and in fighting international crime, India to purchase more than $3 billion of advanced American military equipment, including Apache and MH-60 Romeo helicopters — the finest in the world, cooperation on counter narcotics and mental health. U.S.-based oil company ExxonMobil announces a deal with state-owned Indian Oil Corporation.
27 October, 2019 – Secretary of State Michael R. Pompeo and Secretary of Defense Mark T. Esper today co-hosted Indian Minister of Defense Rajnath Singh and Minister of External Affairs Dr. S. Jaishankar for the second U.S.-India 2+2 Ministerial Dialogue at the Department of State in Washington, D.C. The two sides reaffirmed the growing strategic partnership between the United States and India, which is grounded in democratic values, shared strategic objectives, strong people-to-people ties, and a common commitment to the prosperity of their citizens.
5 June 2019- President Trump scrapped trade privileges under the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) for India, the biggest beneficiary of a scheme that allowed duty-free exports of up to $5.6 billion. India termed that “unfortunate” and vowed to uphold its national interests. India to impose retaliatory tariffs on 28 U.S. goods
Signing of a Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA)
7 September 2018- Secretary Pompeo and Prime Minister Modi also discussed the importance of the U.S.-India economic partnership and joint efforts to expand bilateral trade in a balanced and reciprocal manner. Secretary Pompeo and Minister Swaraj discussed joint efforts to promote a rules-based order in the Indo-Pacific. The Secretary and Minister Swaraj also discussed efforts to expand the bilateral trade relationship, the importance of moving forward on civil-nuclear cooperation, and the goal of deepening people-to-people ties. They welcomed the signing of a Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) that will facilitate access to advanced defence systems and enable India to optimally utilise its existing U.S.-origin platforms. It also allows for real time information sharing between the two countries.
June 2017- Indian Prime Minister visits the USA to meet US President Donald Trump. The two countries release a joint statement bolstering their economic relations, climate change, defence and counterterrorism cooperation.
The President of the United States of America, Barack Obama, accompanied by First Lady Michelle Obama, is visiting India from 25-27 January 2015. The President of India and the Prime Minister of India welcomed the U.S. President as the Chief Guest at India’s 66th Republic Day celebrations, the first U.S. President to grace this historic event. President Obama and Prime Minister Narendra Modi announce a breakthrough on nuclear-related issues that could help implement the U.S.-India civil nuclear deal, Global Issues and Regional Consultations, Climate Change, Clean Energy Goal and Cooperation, Energy and Climate Change, Defence and Homeland Security Cooperation, High Technology, Space and Health Cooperation, Economic Growth.
September 30, 2014- The Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi and the President of the United States of America Barack Obama in the US. The leaders welcomed the conclusion of a Memorandum of Understanding between the Export-Import Bank and the Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency, which would make up to $1 billion in financing available to bolster India’s efforts to transition to a low-carbon and climate-resilient energy economy, while boosting U.S. renewable energy exports to India.
On July 31, 2014 Secretary Kerry co-chaired the fifth U.S.-India Strategic Dialogue with the Indian minister of external affairs in New Delhi. Secretary Kerry was accompanied by U.S. Secretary of Commerce Penny Pritzker and officials from other U.S. agencies including the Department of Energy, Department of Homeland Security, and NASA.
1 April 2014- The U.S. ambassador to India has resigned following a row over the arrest of a junior Indian diplomat in New York that pushed relations between the world’s biggest democracies to their lowest ebb in more than a decade.
September 27, 2013- Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited the US. The trip focuses on key issues such as security, trade, immigration reform, and the civilian nuclear deal.
Fourth annual U.S.-India Strategic Dialogue
Secretary Kerry travelled to New Delhi from June 23 to 25, 2013 where he chaired the interagency delegation to the fourth annual U.S.-India Strategic Dialogue.
Third U.S.-India Strategic Dialogue
13 June 2012 – The Third U.S.-India Strategic Dialogue provides both our countries with the opportunity to look forward to the future and the rich opportunities available to deepen our strategic partnership for the benefit of our people. We have a growing strategic convergence and are cooperating at unprecedented levels on economics and trade, countering terrorism, education, science and technology, clean energy, health, and providing for regional and global security.
India’s Minister of External Affairs Shri S.M. Krishna and the U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton met in New Delhi on July 19, 2011, for the second annual meeting of the U.S.–India Strategic Dialogue. The United States and India signed on July 19, 2011, a Memorandum of Understanding between our Computer Emergency Response Teams (CERT-IN and US-CERT) to exchange information on cyber attacks and mutual response to cybersecurity incidents, to cooperate on cybersecurity technology, and to exchange information on cybersecurity policy and best practices and capacity building and exchange of experts.
November 2010- US President Barack Obama visits India where he announces economic ties between the two countries worth $14.9 billion, the two Governments announced completion of all steps to begin implementation of the Civil Nuclear Agreement. Also backing India’s bid for a permanent seat at the UN Security Council.
June 3, 2010– U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton and India’s External Affairs Minister, Shri S.M. Krishna, met in Washington, for the inaugural meeting of the “India-U.S. Strategic Dialogue.” President Barack Obama welcomed the Indian delegation and emphasised his commitment to strengthening the growing U.S.-India partnership.
April 6, 2010– Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee and Timothy F. Geithner, secretary, US treasury jointly launched the Expanded US-India Financial & Economic Partnership.
India and the U.S. launched a Ministerial-level Strategic Dialogue, co-chaired by External Affairs Minister and the U.S. Secretary of State in July 2009, which focuses on bilateral relations along five pillars of mutual interest, namely: Strategic Cooperation; Energy and Climate Change, Education and Development; Economy, Trade and Agriculture; Science and Technology; and Health and Innovation.
October 10, 2008- Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and Indian External Affairs Minister Pranab Mukherjee realised a historic milestone in the U.S.-India strategic relationship today by signing an Agreement for Cooperation Concerning Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy, also known as the 123 Agreement. The Agreement establishes the legal framework for the United States to engage in civil nuclear cooperation with India. Entry into force of this agreement will open the door for U.S. firms to participate in India’s civil nuclear energy sector, which is projected to expand dramatically in the coming years.
March 2006- USA took significant steps to strengthen our civil nuclear ties by extending strong support for India’s participation in the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) consortium and by removing India’s safeguarded reactors from the Department of Commerce’s Entities List. By the time of President Bush’s visit to India in early 2006, we plan to be in a position to ask Congress to make the necessary changes to put this agreement into effect. In the meantime, both India and the U.S. need to take concrete steps to make this agreement possible. This made India the only nation outside the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty to have nuclear weapons and allowed to participate in nuclear commerce.
In July 2005, When Prime Minister Singh met President Bush in Washington agreed to broaden this strategic engagement. Their summit was, in retrospect, a signal and historic turning point. They agreed on several joint ventures that underscore the breadth of the new U.S.-India relationship, among them revitalised economic and energy dialogues, a CEO Forum, a Global Democracy Initiative, a Disaster Response Initiative, the completion of the NSSP process, and a partnership to fight HIV/AIDS. They launched new efforts in education, agriculture, science, and space launch and agreed to send an Indian astronaut on the Space Shuttle for the first time.
28 June 2005, Defense Minister Pranab Mukherjee and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld signed a New Framework that will guide our defence relations for the next decade. We’re planning to enlarge defence trade, improve cooperation between our armed forces, and co-produce military hardware. We hope India will purchase American supersonic fighter planes. The brilliant cooperation of our two militaries during the response to the Tsunami disaster last December was a remarkable testament to how far we have come, and the great potential we have for the future.
2005: After the Sept. 11, 2001 attacks, the US worked closely with India to strategically monitor the Indian Ocean and Suez Canal to Singapore, both of the nation’s starting cooperation on energy security.
2004: The US and Indian navies cooperated on rescue efforts after the Dec. 2004 tsunami that affected the Indian subcontinent
In a Presidential Determination signed on September 22, President George W. Bush waived sanctions on India and Pakistan.
March 2000- Clinton’s multi-day trip to India in early 2000 had the following results- Prime Minister Vajpayee and President Clinton today reaffirmed the vision they outlined in March in New Delhi of a closer and qualitatively new relationship between India and the United States in the 21st century – progress of the Joint Working Group on Counter-Terrorism, joint consultative group on clean energy and environment, progress of the initiative to set up a collaborative Global Institute for Science and Technology in India.
In January 2000, a U.S.-India Joint Working Group on Counter-Terrorism was established. India has been a leading country in supporting U.N. peacekeeping efforts with troops and observers.
1999- The Kargil war between May and July 1999, part of the broader conflict between India and Pakistan over the region of Kashmir, was a seminal turning point in American foreign policy with India. When the U.S. determined that Pakistan had deliberately violated the Line of Control near Kargil, Clinton did not hesitate to blame Pakistan for risking a broader war. For the first time, an American administration was siding publicly with India against Pakistani aggression.
On May 11 and 13, 1998, India c
onducted a total of five underground nuclear tests, breaking a 24-year self-imposed moratorium on nuclear testing. Pakistan followed, claiming 5 tests on May 28, 1998, and an additional test on May 30. The unannounced tests created a global storm of criticism, as well as a serious setback for decades of U.S. nuclear nonproliferation efforts in South Asia. On May 13, 1998, President Clinton imposed economic and military sanctions on India, mandated by Section 102 of the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), and applied the same sanctions to Pakistan on May 30. Some effects of the sanctions on India included: termination of $21 million in FY1998 economic development assistance; postponement of $1.7 billion in lending by the International Financial Institutions (IFI), as supported by the Group of Eight (G-8) leading industrial nations; prohibition on loans or credit from U.S. banks to the government of India; and termination of Foreign Military Sales under the Arms Export Control Act. Humanitarian assistance, food, or other agricultural commodities are excepted from sanctions under the law.
1991- The United States has been highly supportive of India’s efforts to transform its formerly quasi-socialist economy through fiscal reform and market opening, beginning under the Narasimha Rao government in 1991, when India took steps to reduce inflation and the budget deficit, privatise state-owned industries, reduce tariffs and industrial licensing controls, and institute incentives to attract foreign trade and investment.
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1987: In the 1980s, the Reagan Administration began to provide limited aid to India and eventually defence technology such as combat aircraft and naval engines. President Ronald W. Reagan met with India’s Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in Washington on Oct. 1 1987.
December 1984- The Bhopal gas leak catastrophe occurs, in which India unsuccessfully seeks extradition of Union Carbide’s CEO for criminal prosecution, complicating bilateral relations between India and the United States.
July 1982- Indira Gandhi visits USA to mend relations with USA by meeting President Reagan. During her visit in 1982, she and then President Ronald Reagan signed an agreement that implied cooperation in science and technology on the Tarapur nuclear plant.
March 1978- The Nuclear Nonproliferation Act was passed by the Carter administration, requiring countries not party to the Nonproliferation Treaty, including India, to allow the International Atomic Energy Agency to monitor all nuclear sites. India refuses, and Washington withdraws all nuclear aid to Delhi. In 1978, India proposed the negotiation of an international convention that would prohibit the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons.
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January 1978- US President Jimmy Carter and Prime Minister Morarji Desai rounded off two days of discussions by signing an agreed document which will be known as the Delhi Declaration.
1st jan 1978: When the anti-Soviet Janata Party came to power in the late 70s, Indian relations with the US began to improve. President Jimmy Carter visited Indian Prime Minister Morarji Desai in New Delhi in 1978.
The test amplified US concerns about then prime minister Indira Gandhi’s close relationship with the Soviet Union and her decision to develop nuclear technology while dependent on US food aid.
1972, Ambassador Keating reported that Foreign Secretary Kaul told him that his Government felt the time had come to improve relations between India and the United States. In a conversation with Ambassador Keating, President Nixon told him to tell the Indian Government that “India has a friend in the White House.” The President’s Assistant for National Security Affairs Kissinger added: “But we must move at a measured pace.”
1971- Another war breaks out between India and Pakistan, When the 1971 war started, the US openly supported Pakistan at the cost of basic human rights and democratic values.
The US in 1965 had supported India’s stand that there should be no plebiscite in Kashmir, declassified US documents of the era indicate. At the peak of the 1965 Indo-Pak war, the then Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri wrote a letter to US President Lyndon Johnson wherein he informed the American leadership that New Delhi is willing to agree to an unconditional ceasefire. US Ambassador in Islamabad Walter Patrick McConaughty had an important role in convincing Pakistan for an unconditional ceasefire.
Renowned geneticist Dr MS Swaminathan invited American biologist Dr Norman Borlaug to help increase the country’s food production. Borlaug, known as the ‘Father of the Green Revolution’, was famous worldwide for developing high-yielding, disease-resistant wheat varieties. He came to India in 1963 and, along with Swaminathan, examined its food situation and advised the government on a new course of action.
1962: The Kennedy Administration openly supported India during the Sino-Indian War. The US Air Force flew in arms and aid to Indian troops on the Chinese border, Nov. 1, 1962 and recognised the MacMohan line.
Soon after the five IITs were set up, Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru had realised that to keep pace with the ever changing world of science and technology, it is necessary to collaborate closely with the outside world. The Kanpur Indo-American Programme (1962-1972) at IIT-Kanpur was a stride in this direction. During the period 1962-72, the Institute received technical assistance under KIAP from a consortium of nine leading Institutions of the U.S.A. Under the program, faculty members from these Institutions assisted the Institute in the setting up of the academic programs and development of laboratories for instruction as well as research.
1959: US President Dwight D. Eisenhower makes the first official state visit to India, joining Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru at the Taj Mahal at Agra, India on Dec. 13, 1959
U.S. Recognition of Indian Independence, 1947.
The United States recognized the Union of India as an independent state on August 15, 1947, when President Harry S. Truman sent a congratulatory message to Lord Louis Mountbatten, Governor General of the Dominion of India.
Diplomatic relations and the American Embassy at New Delhi were established on November 1, 1946, when the U.S. Department of State raised the American Mission at New Delhi to an Embassy. The U.S. Department of State announced on October 22, 1946, that the Governments of India and the United States had “agreed to an exchange of ambassadors and to the raising of their respective missions…to the rank of embassies.”
The first ministerial level meeting of QUAD was held on the sidelines of the United Nations General Assembly in New York. Before this, the QUAD had only met at the Joint or Assistant Secretary level since 2017. The ministers discussed collective efforts in shared commitment & close cooperation on counter terrorism, mentoring, disaster relief, airtime and cyber security.
AusIndEx is an exercise between India and Australia which was first held in 2015.The Australian Minister for Defence, the Hon Christopher Pyne MP said “AUSINDEX 2019 would provide an opportunity for Australia and India to hone their anti-submarine warfare capabilities in support of a stable and secure Indian Ocean.” AUSINDEX-2019 was hosted by the Eastern Naval Command of the Indian Navy Similar to the previous editions in the Bay of Bengal with the core emphasis on anti-submarine warfare (ASW).
First India-Japan 2+2 Foreign & Defence Ministerial Meeting. Defence Minister of India, Mr. Rajnath Singh and External Affairs Minister of India, Dr. S. Jaishankar, met their Japanese counterparts Mr. KONO Taro and Mr. MOTEGI Toshimitsu on 30 November 2019 in New Delhi for the first India-Japan 2+2 Foreign and Defence Ministerial Meeting to discuss bilateral security and defense cooperation. The following points were discussed under Bilateral & Multilateral Cooperation-
Inaugural Delivery of Covid Vaccines under QUAD Vaccine Partnership. Indian PM Narendra Modi gifted 325000 doses of Indian Covidshield vaccine to Cambodia as part of India’s commitment to donate 5 lakh doses to Indo-Pacific. The inaugural delivery was made in Cambodia on 12 April 2022. Ambassador of India to Cambodia, Ms. Devyani Khobragade, along with representatives from the Embassies of Australia, Japan and USA to Cambodia, jointly handed over a consignment of doses of Made in India Covidshield vaccines to the Prime Minister of Cambodia, H.E. Mr. Hun Sen, at the Peace Palace in Phnom Penh.
Japan plans to propose a top-level dialogue with the US, India and Australia. Japan announced plans to propose a top-level dialogue with QUAD members- US, Indian & Australia with the agenda of promoting free trade and defense cooperation from South China sea & Indian Ocean till Africa. The proposition also aimed at counteracting China’s aggressive maritime expansions.
(https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/Japan-to-propose-dialogue-with-US-India-and-Australia2 )
Australia backs out of QUAD under the Rudd Administration. On 5 February, 2008, Chinese Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi jointly commenced the first round of bilateral strategic dialogue between China and Australia in Canberra along with his Australian counterpart Stephen Smith, under the newly elected Kevin Rudd administration in Australia. Post the bilateral talks, Kevin Rudd, the then Australian Prime Minister announced that Australia would no longer participate in the QUAD dialogue. This marked the end of QUAD 1.0. The Indian PM ManMohan Singh said “ [it] never got going” while referring to QUAD. Australia was dropped from the 2008 Malabar exercise. (https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ce/cgsf//eng/xw/t409600.htm )
Return in power of Japanese PM Shinzo Abe and formation of Democratic Security Diamond. Upon assuming the leadership for the second time in 2012, Japanese PM Shinzo Abe called for the formation of a “Democratic Security Diamond” to safeguard the maritime commons stretching from the Indian Ocean region to the western Pacific with four of Asia’s most prominent maritime democracies — Australia, India, the United States and Japan — forming the points of the diamond. The PM Shinzo Abe authored this at the Project Syndicate on 27 December 2012, and also wrote “Peace, stability, and freedom of navigation in the Pacific Ocean are inseparable from peace, stability, and freedom of navigation in the Indian Ocean.” The Japanese leader explicitly called on these states to join forces to oppose Chinese “coercion” and to defend peace, stability and freedom of navigation within the diamond.
(https://www.project-syndicate.org/onpoint/a-strategic-alliance-for-japan-and-india-by-shinzo-abe )
India-Malabar maritime exercise series of QUAD nations in Bay of Bengal, India. An expanded version of the annual US-India Malabar exercise took place in September, which also included Singapore along with US, Japan, Australia and India. Ian Hall referred to this maritime QUAD with Singapore as SQUAD. Two editions of Malabar were held. In April 2007, Malabar was conducted for the first time in the Western Pacific to which Japan was added. The subsequent Malabar 2007-2 was multilateral and was the first held off India’s Eastern Coast (Bay of Bengal).
U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney in Bush Administration signalling American interest in an early QUAD dialogue and subsequently Australian, Indian, Japanese diplomatic counterparts’ efforts to reaffirm the same through diplomatic visits, dialogue, and a Malabar naval exercise. According to various reports, then U.S. Vice President Dick Cheney despite hesitations from some quarters of the Bush administration, pushed and endorsed the idea of American association and interest in an early quadrilateral dialogue involving India, Japan, and Australia in addition to the ‘Trilateral Strategic Dialogue’ the U.S, Japan, and Australia (the Pacific Allies) started in early 2002. VP Cheney discussed the potential of such a quadrilateral group with the Australian Prime Minister John Howard during a visit in February, 2007. Soon thereafter, Australian PM John Howard and Indian Foreign Minister Mr. Pranab Mukherjee flew to Tokyo to reaffirm the momentum of the quadrilateral dialogue. Finally, Japanese PM Shinzo Abe and Foreign Minister Taro Aso’s much promised diplomatic April visit to India clinched the deal for the first QUAD meeting. The four nations also held joint Malabar naval exercise near Tokyo in Okinawa island of Japan, in the Western Pacific.
Indian PM Dr. Manmohan Singh’s Joint Statement with Japanese PM Shinzo Abe towards India-Japan Strategic and Global Partnership in a visit to Tokyo. Indian PM Dr. Manmohan Singh in an official visit to Japan from 13th to 16th December was accorded a ceremonial welcome on 14th of December. The two Prime Ministers unveiled the joint logo and even declared 2007 to be ‘India-Japan Friendship’ year. They discussed and touched upon the following topics:
Lastly, as a gesture of gratitude and appreciation, the Indian PM Dr. Manmohan Singh invited the Japanese PM Mr. Shinzo Abe to pay a return visit to India in 2007 at a mutually convenient date. Thus, this visit of Indian PM to Japan later went on to become a cornerstone of QUAD.
On recommendations of the Japanese government, the four countries met at Manila, Philippines for ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) originally, but also ended up having a meeting of what we call the first meeting of four nation states on issues of “common interests”, one of which was “disaster relief”. On 28th May, 2007, when being questioned on the ‘Standing Committee on Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade Foreign Affairs and Trade Portfolio’ by other senators in the Parliament of Australia, Ms. Jennifer Rawson, First Assistant Secretary, International Security Division, clarified that the meeting was not an extension of ‘Trilateral Strategic Dialogue (involving Japan, Australia, and US)’ that started in 2002, and certainly not at all a “quadripartite security alliance” but rather “a meeting of four countries which share some values and growing cooperation in the Asia-Pacific (as can be accessed here: ParlInfo – STANDING COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS, DEFENCE AND TRADE : 28/05/2007 : FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND TRADE PORTFOLIO (aph.gov.au)”
On his official visit to India, Japanese PM Mr. Shinzo Abe reinforced the ties of two nations, i.e., Japan and India with his famous speech about “confluence of the two seas” delivered at the parliament of India in presence of the PM of India and other important Indian counterparts. After briefly grieving over the disastrous torrential rain in Bihar state, Mr. Abe started with the statement, “The different streams, having their sources in different places, all mingle their water in the sea.”
In 2007, Japanese President Shinzo Abe resigned from his post citing health reasons. This had a significant impact on QUAD as he was the architect & advocate of QUAD. His successor, Yasuo Fukuda, did not take up QUAD with such zeal leading to dormancy of the forum. (https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/akashvani/abe-pioneer-of-the-quad-29505/ )
Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011, also called Great Sendai Earthquake or Great Tōhoku Earthquake, was a 9.0 magnitude earthquake which struck below the floor of the Western Pacific at 2:49 PM. The powerful earthquake affected the northeastern coast of Honshu, Japan’s main island, and also initiated a series of large tsunami waves that devastated coastal areas of Japan, which also led to a major nuclear accident. Japan received aid from India, US, Australia as well as other countries. US Navy aircraft carrier was dispatched to the area and Australia sent search-and-rescue teams.
India and Australia signed the Framework for Security Cooperation in November 2014 during the visit of Prime Minister Narendra Modi to Australia. Six areas were identified under the framework:-
The India-Japan Agreement for Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy was signed on 11 November, 2016 and came into force on 20 July, 2017 which was representative of strengthening ties between India and Japan. Diplomatic notes were exchanged between Dr. S. Jaishankar and H.E. Mr. Kenji Hiramatsu, Ambassador of Japan to India. (https://mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/28678/The_entry_into_force_of_IndiaJapan_Agreement_for_Cooperation_in the_Peaceful_Uses_of_Nuclear_Energy )
The foreign ministry officials from India, Japan, Australia, and the United States (US) met on the sidelines of the ASEAN and East Asia Summit in Manila to begin the revival of QUAD. There were discussions on ways to pursue shared objectives in development, connectivity, regional security, HA-DR and maritime cooperation. The participants reaffirmed their support for a free, open, prosperous and inclusive Indo-Pacific region and their support for ASEAN countries.
The Officials of QUAD member countries met in Singapore on November 15, 2018 for consultation on regional & global issues of common interest. The main discussion revolved around connectivity, sustainable development, counter-terrorism, maritime and cyber security, with the view to promote peace, stability and prosperity in the Indo-Pacific Region.
(https://mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/30593/indiaaustraliajapanus+consultations )
The 23rd edition of trilateral Malabar maritime exercise between India, US and Japan took place on 26 September- 04 October, 2019 off the coast of Japan. Two frontline indigenously designed and built Indian Naval Ships, the Multipurpose Guided Missile Frigate Sahyadri and ASW Corvette Kiltan, with Rear Admiral Suraj Berry, Flag Officer Commanding Eastern Fleet embarked onboard, arrived at Sasebo on 25 September 2019, to participate in the Exercise, as reported by the Indian Navy. In addition to the ships, a ‘P8I’ Long Range Maritime Patrol Aircraft, also arrived in Japan for the Exercise for the very first time. The US Navy was represented by USS McCampbell, a Los Angeles-Class Attack Submarine and a ‘P8A’ Long Range Maritime Patrol Aircraft. The JMSDF would be participating with its Izumo Class Helicopter Destroyer JS Kaga, Guided Missile Destroyers JS Samidare and Choukai and a ‘P1’ Long Range Maritime Patrol Aircraft. (https://www.indiannavy.nic.in/content/exercise-malabar-2019 )
After the first ministerial level meeting of QUAD in September, 2019, the senior officials of US, Japan, India and Australia again met for consultations in Bangkok on the margins of the East Asia Summit. Statements were issued separately by the four countries. Indian Ministry of External Affairs said “In statements issued separately by the four countries, MEA said, “proceeding from the strategic guidance of their Ministers, who met in New York City on the sidelines of the UN General Assembly recently, the officials exchanged views on ongoing and additional practical cooperation in the areas of connectivity and infrastructure development, and security matters, including counterterrorism, cyber and maritime security, with a view to promoting peace, security, stability, prosperity in the Indo-Pacific region.”
US 2+2 Ministerial Dialogue was held on 18 December, 2019, in Washington DC. Secretary of State Michael R. Pompeo and Secretary of Defense Mark T. Esper will host Indian Minister of External Affairs Dr. S. Jaishankar and Minister of Defense Shri Rajnath Singh. The discussion focussed on deepening bilateral strategic and defense cooperation, exchanging perspectives on global developments, and our shared leadership in the Indo-Pacific region.The two democracies signed the Industrial Security Annex before the 2+2 Dialogue. Assessments of the situation in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and the Indian Ocean region in general were shared between both countries. (https://mea.gov.in/bilateral-documents.htm?dtl/32224/Transcript_of_Press_Statements_at_India_US_2432_Ministerial_Dialogue Washington_DC_on_18_December_2019 )
The foreign ministers of QUAD continued their discussions from the last ministerial level meeting in 2019, on 6 October, 2020. While there was no joint statement released, all countries issued individual readouts. As per the issue readout by India, the discussion called for a coordinated response to the challenges including financial problems emanating from the pandemic, best practices to combat Covid-19, increasing the resilience of supply chains, and enhancing access to affordable vaccines, medicines and medical equipment. There was also a focus on maintaining stability in the Indo-Pacific region amidst growing tensions. Australian media release mentions “We emphasised that, especially during a pandemic, it was vital that states work to ease tensions and avoid exacerbating long-standing disputes, work to counter disinformation, and refrain from malicious cyberspace activity. Ministers reiterated that states cannot assert maritime claims that are inconsistent with international law, particularly the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).” The External Affairs Minister of India also had a bilateral meeting with H.E. Mr. Michael Pompeo, Secretary of State of USA and planned a meeting with his Australian & Japanese counterpart to further bilateral cooperations. The Japanese readout also highlighted exchange of views on North Korea and the East and South China Sea. (https://www.foreignminister.gov.au/minister/marise-payne/media-release/australia-india-japan-united-states-quad-foreign-ministers-meeting , https://mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/33098/2nd_IndiaAustraliaJapan_USA_Ministerial_Meeting , https://www.mofa.go.jp/press/release/press6e_000244.html )
On September 24, President Biden hosted Prime Minister Scott Morrison of Australia, Prime Minister Narendra Modi of India, and Prime Minister Yoshihide Suga of Japan at the White House for the first-ever in-person Leaders’ Summit of the QUAD. The leaders released a Joint Statement which summarised their dialogue and future course of action. The regional security of the Indo-Pacific and strong confidence in the ASEAN remained on the focus along with response to the Pandemic. Working groups on Covid-19 vaccines, climate change, and technological innovation, supply-chain resilience and space were formed. Main points discussed under various domains were:
More details can be found in the 2021 QUAD Factsheet here: (https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/09/24/fact-sheet-quad-leaders-summit/ )
The QUAD Vaccine Partnership was announced at the first QUAD Summit on 12 March 2021 where QUAD countries agreed to deliver 1.2 billion vaccine doses globally. The aim was to expand and finance vaccine manufacturing and equipping the Indo-Pacific to build resilience against Covid-19. The launch of a senior-level QUAD Vaccine Experts Group, comprised of top scientists and officials from all QUAD member governments was also spearheaded.
Although the Tsunami Core group had to be disbanded on fulfilment of its purpose, however the quadrilateral template that formed remained intact as a successful scaffolding of four countries, as stated by authors Patrick Gerard Buchan and Benjamin Rimland in their diplomatic brief about QUAD ( you can access the brief at https://www.csis.org/analysis/defining-diamond-past-present-and-future-quadrilateral-security-dialogue). Then President of the Liberal Democratic Party, Shinzo Abe proposed the “Arc of Freedom and Prosperity” in reference to the quadrilateral template that has found its mark. In November 30th, 2006, Japan’s Minister for Foreign Affairs Mr. Taro Aso on the occasion of Japan Institute of Foreign Affairs (JIFA) seminar “Arc of Freedom and Prosperity: Japan’s Expanding Diplomatic Horizons” introduced two phrases in his speech, viz., “value oriented diplomacy” and “the arc of freedom and prosperity” and referred these expressions as the bases of foreign policy. And by “value oriented diplomacy” he wanted to point out on placing emphasis on “universal values” such as democracy, freedom, human rights, the rule of law, and the market economy, while the expression “the arc of freedom and prosperity” denotes to the successfully budding democracies at the outer rim of the Eurasian continent, forming an arc, with whom Japan intends to connect in a diplomatic group (as this can be found in the Foreign Affairs Ministers speech MOFA: Speech by Mr. Taro Aso, Minister for Foreign Affairs on the Occasion of the Japan Institute of International Affairs Seminar “Arc of Freedom and Prosperity: Japan’s Expanding Diplomatic Horizons”). Besides discussing Japan’s strive for pacifism, shared values of democracy, and its desired foreign relations with EU, NATO, ASEAN, Russia, Ukraine, CLV countries (Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam), countries in Caucasus region, viz., Georgia, Azerbaijan; the Foreign Affairs Minister mostly earnestly wished to firm Japan’s relations with US, Australia and India for their common shared goals, as Mr. Taro Aso quoted, “With that in mind, I firmly believe that Japan must make its ties even firmer with friendly nations that share the common views and interests, namely of course the United States as well as Australia, India, and the member states of the EU and NATO, and at the same time work with these friends towards the expansion of this “arc of freedom and prosperity”.” He further stated in a supplementary note that Japan specifically wishes to strengthen its ties with India, drawing analogy to Japan’s already established strong ties with China (as can be found in the Foreign Affairs Ministers speech MOFA: Speech by Mr. Taro Aso, Minister for Foreign Affairs on the Occasion of the Japan Institute of International Affairs Seminar “Arc of Freedom and Prosperity: Japan’s Expanding Diplomatic Horizons”). Thus, this famous speech set up a further stronger scaffolding for the quadrilateral structure in diplomacy of Japan, US, India, and Australia.
Secretary of State Colin Powell stated that the Core Tsunami Group was to be disbanded and folded and clubbed with the broader United Nations led Relief Operations. In a Tsunami Relief Conference in Jakarta, Secretary Powell stated that “The Core group helped to catalyse International response. …Having served its purpose, it will…now fold itself into the broader coordination efforts of the United Nations.” Top U.S. officials too commented that the group had already served its purpose by springing early in to contain the havoc wreaked by the catastrophe. On January 7th, 2005, Secretary Powel also shared a global message to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations leaders about United States’ support in the relief and recuperation from the catastrophe, the confirmation about the country’s participation in U.N. Donors Conference in Geneva in January 11th, 2005 (as can be found in this White House Archive https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2005/01/20050107.html )
Soon after the Earthquake and Tsunami crisis, humanitarian reliefs by countries, viz., US, India, Japan, and Australia started to help the 13 havoc-stricken countries. The US initially promised $ 35 Millions in aid. However, on 29th December, President George W. Bush in a White House Press Briefing (as can be found in this White House Archive https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/12/20041229-1.html) at 8:38 AM in Prarie Chapel Ranch, at Crawford in Texas announced a “regional core group” with India, Japan, and Australia to help coordinate the relief efforts (media claimed that this stance was in response to the alleged slow response of US to the catastrophe), and that he anticipated confidently about other nations joining the group in short order. In doing so, President Bush appointed Mark Grossman to lead the U.S. task force under the tutelage of Secretary of State Colin Powell to work with these partner nations for coordinating an interagency response in their , i.e., U.S. government and to encourage other nations to participate in the relief efforts. On 31st December, 2004, President Bush further allocated $ 350 million to the aid on recommendation of Secretary Powell and administrator Natsios and on 4th of January, 2005, President Bush announced that two former Presidents, viz., George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton would lead a nationwide charitable fundraising in order to encourage private donations to the relief effort ( as can be found in this White House Archive https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2004/12/20041231-1.html). The Core group was defined as a “new type of diplomacy” created on the face of adversity, as defined by Marc Grossman (as you can find in his research work (The Tsunami Core Group: A Step toward a Transformed Diplomacy in Asia and Beyond (researchgate.net))
At 7:59AM local time, an earthquake of 9.1 magnitude (undersea) hit the coast of Sumatra, an Indonesian island. As a result of the same, massive waves of Tsunami triggered by the earthquake wreaked havoc for 7 hours across the Indian Ocean and to the coastal areas as far away as East Africa. The infamous Tsunami killed around 225,000 people, with people reporting the height of waves to be as high as 9 metres, i.e., 30 feet. Indonesia, Srilanka, India, Maldives, Thailand sustained horrendously massive damage, with the death toll exceeding 200,000 in Northern Sumatra’s Ache province alone. A great many people, i.e., around tens of thousands were found dead or missing in Srilanka and India, mostly from Andaman and Nicobar Islands of Indian territory. Maldives, being a low-lying country, also reported casualties in hundreds and more, with several non-Asian tourists reported dead or missing who were vacationing. Lack of food, water, medicines burgeoned the numbers of casualties, with the relief workers finding it difficult to reach the remotest areas where roads were destroyed or civil war raged. Long-term environmental damage ensued too, as both natural and man-made resources got demolished and diminished.